Muhammad's Night Journey and Early Islam's Jerusalem connection | Gabriel Reynolds

Overview & Key Concepts

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Who is Gabriel Reynolds?

Gabriel Reynolds is an American academic and historian of religion who serves as professor of Islamic Studies and Theology at the University of Notre ... more

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What is Early Islam?

Early Islam or the history of Islam is believed, by most historians to have originated with Muhammad's mission in Mecca and Medina at the start of the ... more

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Where is Jerusalem?

Jerusalem is a city in the Middle East. It is located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of ... more

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Frequently Asked Questions

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1.How did James, leader of the Jerusalem Church, view Apostle Paul?

Paul's new doctrine met with disapproval from the Jewish-Christians of the Jerusalem Church led by James, who regarded the substitution of Jesus' atoning death for the observance of the Torah as a lapse into paganism.

Paul was duly summoned to Jerusalem by the leaders James, Peter and John to explain his doctrine in 50 AD.

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2.What is Islam?

Islam translates to submission and full surrender to God. Under this core definition, all historical prophets sent to humanity are considered Islamic prophets. This extensive list features prominent figures such as Adam, Abraham, Noah, Moses, David, Jesus, and Muhammad.

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3.Who is a Muslim?

A Muslim is a dedicated follower of the religion of Islam. This theological path is defined as a monotheistic Abrahamic faith revealed through the final prophet, Muhammad.

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4.Were all Prophets Muslim?

Yes, because they all consistently preached the worship of one absolute God and prohibited the worship of false deities.

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5.Do Muslims believe in Prophets?

A Muslim is strictly required to believe in, honour, and respect each and every prophet sent by God without exception.

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6.Why choose the name MuslimProphets.com?

The name reflects that all prophets taught monotheism and the worship of one God, making them all 'in-essence' considered Muslim.

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7.Does Islam promote extremism, terrorism and violence?

No, the platform maintains that Islam is a religion of peace and tolerance, aligning with the message of all prophets.

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8.Where can I learn more about Islam?

Various online sources are available.

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9.Do Muslims believe in The Bible?

Muslims believe that God originally revealed the Gospel to Jesus as a source of guidance, light, and instruction.

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10.What is the basic teaching of Islam?

The basic teaching is to make peace with God, which requires a person to submit to Him and obey His commands completely.

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11.How did Islam come into the world?

The religion of Islam in its present form came to us through the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, who lived and preached in Arabia some 1400 years ago (born 571 CE, died 632 CE). However, Muhammad taught that he was not bringing a completely new religion into the world, because the basic principles of Islam had also been preached by all the great founders of the various religions before him. Islam, therefore, did not begin with Muhammad, but was also the religion of Abraham, Moses, Jesus and every ancient prophet.

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12.If all prophets taught Islam, what was so different about Muhammad?

Over time, previous teachings had been altered or lost, so Muhammad was sent as the final prophet to restore, update, and unify the foundational principles of faith into a complete religion.

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13.What do I have to do to become a Muslim?

One becomes a Muslim by publicly declaring the shahada, or testimony of faith, acknowledging there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His messenger.

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14.What do Muslims believe?

Core beliefs involve five main aspects: the perfection of God, the role of angels, accepting all prophets and their revelations, and the reality of life after death and its consequences.

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15.What is the basic teaching of Islam about God?

Islam teaches that there is one, and only one, God Who is the Creator and Controller of the entire universe. He is unique in every respect, and there is nothing which bears any likeness to Him. He is the Knower of all things, and has full power over the whole of creation. He does not stand in need of anything at all, while everything is totally dependent on Him. He possesses all the perfect qualities, and man should worship Him, and Him alone.

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16.Does Islam give any arguments to prove the existence of God?

The Holy Quran gives three kinds of arguments on this point.

Firstly, it refers us to the physical world which shows great order and arrangement, works according to laws, and where everything has a set purpose in the whole scheme of things. There is also immense beauty in nature which attracts man's heart. Science is discovering more and more of these characteristics of the world all the time. So behind this highly purposeful and beautiful working of nature must be One, single Intelligence of great beauty and attraction.

Secondly, the Quran tells us about the close and deep connection between God and the inner nature of every person. There is an in-built desire in each and every person to search for something higher than oneself, and when in difficulties a person instinctively wants to call upon a Hidden Power to help him.

Thirdly, and most convincingly, Prophets and men of God appeared in every nation in the world and showed their people the reality of God through their teachings and works. Just as most of us learn about science not by making all the discoveries ourselves, but by accepting the work and evidence of those who devote themselves to the study of science, similarly the proof of the existence of God is provided by the lives of the great luminaries whom God sent all over the world for this very purpose.

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17.Other religions also teach the existence of God. Is there any difference between their teaching and the Islamic concept of God?

The first major difference is that Islam teaches the absolute one-ness of God, with Whom no one can share in Divinity. No idol or heavenly object, nor any religious or spiritual teacher, can possess some Divine power or attribute.

Secondly, Islam teaches the highest conception of God, and does not accept any limitation to His power and knowledge, while other religions set limits to Him. For instance, Islam rejects the Hindu belief that God is not the Creator of matter and souls but exists alongside them. It also rejects the Christian doctrine that God is unable to forgive sins unless He punishes someone, and so He sent His 'son' to suffer the punishment for the sins of all humanity. Moreover, a son is needed to take the place of the father when the father dies, and clearly this cannot apply if God is perfect.

Thirdly, Islam refutes the idea that any human being, however great, was a 'manifestation' of God on earth, or a Divine incarnate.

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18.Which prophets do Muslims have to believe in?

Muslims are strictly required to maintain belief in every single prophet and messenger sent by God. This belief must be completely equal, meaning no distinctions or hierarchies of validity are made between them. This universal recognition applies regardless of the specific country or historical era in which they appeared.

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19.Since Muslims believe in all the Prophets equally, why is Muhammad special?

All Prophets were equally from God, and equally true, but the scope of their missions varied. The messengers before Muhammad were each given teachings limited to their respective nations, because in those times a nation did not have much to do with other nations.

Furthermore, the teachings of each Prophet applied for a limited period of time only, after which God would raise another Prophet to revise some of the teachings for the new circumstances.

The time came to unite all the nations upon a single religion so that mankind may live in peace as one nation. Muhammad, to whom God gave teachings for the whole world for all time to come fulfilled this purpose.

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20.Do Muslims believe in scripture other than their own Quran?

Muslims believe that previous scriptures given to Moses, David, and Jesus contain elements of truth, but they maintain that the Quran is the final revelation from God and takes absolute precedence.

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21.Is the Star and Crescent a symbol of Islam?

The crescent is not a symbol of Islam, but of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans are those tribes that moved to Turkey from east and middle Asia. They converted to Islam and built a huge Muslim Empire that ruled the whole Muslim world for centuries. When they took Islam as a religion they started using the lunar calendar, the calendar that was used by Muslims, Jews and early Christians. Even today, the flag of Turkey has a crescent on it. There was no crescent on any mosque built before the Ottomans era.

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22.How are Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus considered Muslim Prophets, when Islam came 600-years after Jesus?

A Muslim is essentially defined as anyone who believes in and submits to one God; because all of these historical prophets consistently preached the message of pure Monotheism and called people to worship the Creator alone, they are considered to be Muslim in-essence regarding their foundational theological beliefs.

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23.Can Muslims eat swine and pork?

No, the consumption of pork, bacon, and ham is strictly prohibited by divine law, matching historical restrictions found in the Old Testament followed by Jews and certain Christian groups.

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24.Do Muslims believe in a God?

Yes, Muslims believe in Allah as the all-powerful, eternal Creator who is separate from creation, has no partners, no gender, and is the absolute sole entity worthy of human worship.

He is transcendent and not a part of his creation. He is all-powerful, absolutely Just and He is First, Last, and Everlasting; He was when nothing was, and will be when nothing else remains. Also, There is no other entity in the entire universe worthy of worship besides Him.

This belief in God is how one becomes a Muslim and is similar to the first commandment of Christianity and Judaism: You shall have no other gods before Me.

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25.In Islam, can God become a Man?

No, God is perfect and He is all powerful. Both Muslims and Christians accept that this is true. The ontological term for this is that God is 'immutable' or absolute in His perfect nature. In the Christian faith, God's incarnation is seen as a manifestation of His power, whereas in Islam it is seen as the changing of God's nature. If God is perfect, and God's nature changes, how can He be perfect?

It would have to mean that He was not perfect before and is now perfect, which would not make Him God or that He was perfect before and is now not perfect, which would also not make Him God.

If God is perfect, then there is no need for Him to become anything, so that He can grant us salvation. Since He's already perfect, loving and merciful, why would He need to change His nature to a weaker, human nature to grant us salvation? That's a contradiction. Therefore, when the Christian argues that God changing His nature makes Him perfect, this is not the case. They need to think before they speak. If God is perfect and you add something to His nature, does that mean He was not perfect before? Which means He was not a God before this addition?

If God is perfect and you add something to His nature, that would mean He lacked something before and thus could not be a God.

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26.Does the Quran encourage violence against the disbelievers (non-Muslims)?

Academic Islamic scholarship clarifies that verses in the Quran addressing warfare against non-Muslims were historically revealed during active, state-level conflicts with the pagan tribes of Mecca and their military allies. Mainstream historians emphasize that these specific martial passages must be read within their situational context of self-defence and treaty violations, rather than as an open-ended command to attack peaceful non-Muslims.

The historical context is that this Quran verse was revealed at the Battle of Badr, a battle in which the pagans of Makkah traveled over 200 miles to destroy the Muslims of Madinah. The Pagans of Makkah had an army of about 1000 while the Muslims were only 300 followers. Muhammad and his followers had suffered severe persecutions and torture for 13 years in the city of Makkah. Having fled from Makkah to the safety of Madinah, they found that they were once again threatened.

From a historical and textual context this Quran verse does not promote the killing of innocents.

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27.Does Islam encourage violence?

From an objective theological perspective, standard Islamic jurisprudence explicitly prohibits unprovoked violence, aggression, and the targeting of civilians, defining warfare strictly under defensive parameters. While fringe extremist groups frequently misinterpret isolated text to justify modern terrorism, mainstream Islamic law actively prioritizes peace, diplomacy, and the protection of religious minorities.

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28.Why should non-Muslims pay the Jizya (tax)?

In classical Islamic law, the Jizya was a poll tax levied annually on adult, able-bodied non-Muslim male subjects (Dhimmi) living under an Islamic state. Historically, this tax served a dual purpose: it exempted non-Muslims from mandatory military service (which was required of Muslims) and acted as a financial contribution for state-provided security and the protection of their property, life, and religious freedom.

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29.Are Muslims told to kill polytheists in the Quran?

Academic, context-based interpretations of the Quran indicate that verses regarding fighting (e.g., 9:5, 2:190) are historically situated within specific conflicts or treaty breaches rather than universal commands, emphasizing that the text generally prohibits indiscriminate violence, defends the sanctity of life (5:32), and allows for positive relations with peaceful non-Muslims (60:8).

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30.Can the Muslims have non-Muslim friends?

Muhammad was kind to the pagans of Mecca and fought them only when they fought him. He made treaties with the Jews of Madinah and honored the treaties until they broke them. He received the Christians of Najran with kindness in Madinah. They argued with him about Islam, but he treated them with honor and respect.

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31.Why should non-Muslims pay a Jizyah tax?

Historically, the Jizya functioned as a protection tax, exempting non-Muslim subjects (dhimmi) from military service in exchange for state security, as established in the legal frameworks of early Islamic states.

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32.Can the Muslims be harsh to non-Muslims?

Mainstream Islamic scholarship and textual analysis indicate that passages mentioning sternness or fighting (such as Surah At-Tawbah 9:123) specifically target active combatants, political subversives, and hypocrites who worked internally to destabilise the community from within. Objective historians emphasize that these verses do not prescribe a universal template for daily interactions, which are otherwise commanded to be characterized by justice, kindness, and respectful coexistence.

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33.Does the Quran encourage ill-treatment of non-Muslims?

No, orthodox Islamic theology strictly prohibits the unprovoked abuse, exploitation, or mistreatment of peaceful non-Muslims, explicitly warning in the Hadith literature that anyone who oppresses a religious minority will face divine complaints from the Prophet himself on the Day of Judgment. Scriptural texts command Muslims to uphold agreements, demonstrate broad compassion to all of creation, and engage in respectful theological dialogue.

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34.Why do Muslims say non-Muslims will go to Hell?

One of the basic teachings of Islam is that God does not have a favorable opinion of those who knowingly deny His right to be worshiped alone (as He alone is responsible for our creation, our sustenance, and our judgement) and reject any of His messengers.

This is not to say that there will be conveyor belts for each religion, and we just jump on and go to either Heaven or Hell according to what we call ourselves. Each person will be judged based on their understanding of God's message, as well as his or her capability and intentions to follow the path to God as best he or she could.

Muslims are not allowed to say that someone will go to hell just because they call themselves a Christian, Jew, or Polytheist. Muslims are not allowed to speak without knowledge. And each person's destination in the Hereafter is known only to God.

It is interesting to note that some people of different faiths insist on telling everyone who does not go to their specific place of worship that they will certainly be going to Hell (knowledge they do not have). But when they see this Quran verse, they are upset by it.

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35.Why do Muslims sacrifice livestock (goat, sheep, cow etc.) on Eid Al-Adha?

This annual global ritual commemorates the absolute devotion of Abraham, who was commanded by God in a vision to offer his eldest son as a sacrifice. Mainstream Islamic tradition identifies this son as Ishmael, noting that when Abraham demonstrated his complete willingness to obey, God miraculously substituted a ram in the boy's place. The meat from the sacrificed livestock is systematically divided into three equal parts to be shared with family, neighbors, and the impoverished.

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